Video that we has visited :) Enjoy!

Slide Presentation :)

CHAPTER 9: APPROACHES TO AGRICULTURAL MALAYSIA DEVELOPMENT IN MALAYSIA

1. What is the good agriculture practice?

Good agricultural practice (GAP) are specific methods which, when applied to agriculture, create food for consumers or further processing that is safe and wholesome. While there are numerous competing definitions of what methods constitute good agricultural practice there are several broadly accepted schemes that producers can adhere to. The objective of these GAP codes, standards and regulations include, to a varying degree:

• ensuring safety and quality of produce in the food chain
• capturing new market advantages by modifying supply chain governance
• improving natural resources use, workers health and working conditions, and/or
• creating new market opportunities for farmers and exporters in developing countries.

characteristic of Good Agricultural Practice.

How to apply Good Agricultural Practice.

As example, GLOBALG.A.P. today is the world's leading farm assurance program, translating consumer requirements into Good Agricultural Practice in a rapidly growing list of countries . Which are offering 3 main certification products named localg.a.p, GLOBALG.A.P. and GLOBALG.A.P.+ Add-on:

• GLOBALG.A.P. offers 16 standards for 3 scopes: Crops, Livestock, and Aquaculture
• localg.a.p. and GLOBALG.A.P.+ Add-on offer programs for developing customized solutions for our members.

2.ORGANIC FARMING.

Organic farming is a method of crop and livestock production that involves much more than choosing not to use pesticides, fertilizers, genetically modified organisms, antibiotics and growth hormones.

Organic production is a holistic system designed to optimize the productivity and fitness of diverse communities within the agro-ecosystem, including soil organisms, plants, livestock and people. The principal goal of organic production is to develop enterprises that are sustainable and harmonious with the environment.

The general principles of organic production, from the Canadian Organic Standards (2006), include the following:

• protect the environment, minimize soil degradation and erosion, decrease pollution, optimize biological productivity and promote a sound state of health
• maintain long-term soil fertility by optimizing conditions for biological activity within the soil
• maintain biological diversity within the system
• recycle materials and resources to the greatest extent possible within the enterprise
• provide attentive care that promotes the health and meets the behavioural needs of livestock
• prepare organic products, emphasizing careful processing, and handling methods in order to maintain the organic integrity and vital qualities of the products at all stages of production
• rely on renewable resources in locally organized agricultural systems

3.ECONOMIC TRANSFORMATION PROGRAMME (ETP)

1. 1)      Initiative by the Malaysian government to make Malaysia into high income by year 2020.
2. 2)      Managed by Performance Management and Delivery Unit (PEMANDU).
3. 3)      It is projected that Malaysia will be able to achieve the target set.

NATIONAL KEY ECONOMIC AREAS (NKEA)

1. 1)      The NKEA is the key driver to the success of this program as such as activities have the potential to contribute significantly to the growth of the economy of Malaysia.
2. 2)      131 entry point project (EPP) identified under NKEA.
3. 3)      The economic activities that are categorized as NKEA will be prioritized in government planning and funds will be collected.
4. 4)      The two of them  touch on the agriculture sector : The Palm Oil NKEA and the Agriculture NKEA

 

Palm Oil NKEA
1)      Palm oil related EPPs will focus on stream productivity and downstream expansion.
2)      These EPPs will focus on replanting of aging oil palms, mechanizing plantation, stringently best practice to enhance yields, implementing strict quality control to enhance oil extraction, and developing biogas facilities at palm mills to capture the methane released during milling.

AGRICULTURE NKEA
1)      The Agriculture targets the creation of 74,000 job opportunities and to increase the income of formers by 2 to 4 times.
2)      The largest sources of multiplier effect on the Agriculture NKEA are the Palm Oil and Wholesale and Retail NKEAs, estimated to contribute 37% and 27% respectively.

EPPs under agriculture

EPP 1: unlocking value from Malaysia’s biodiversity through high-value herbal products

EPP 2: Expanding the production of swiftlet nests

EPP 3: Venturing into commercial-scale seaweed farming in Sabah

EPP 4: Farming through integrated cage aquaculture systems

EPP 5: Rearing cattle in oil palm estates

EPP 6: Replicating integrated aquaculture model (IZAQs) to tap the market for premium shrimp.

EPP 7: Upgrading capabilities to produce fruit and vegetable for premium markets.

EPP 8: Strengthening export capabilities of the processed food industry through an integrated processed food park

EPP 9: Introducing fragrant rice variety for non-irrigated areas

EPP 10: Scaling up, and strengthening productivity of paddy farming in the Muda area

EPP 11: Scaling up, strengthening paddy farming productivity in other areas

EPP 12: Strengthening current anchor companies in cattle feedlots

EPP 13: Partnering with a large foreign dairy company to establish dairy clusters

EPP 14: Establishing a leadership position in regional breeding services

EPP 15: Securing foreign direct investment in agriculture biotechnology

EPP 16: Investing in a foreign cattle farming company

CHAPTER 8: Agriculture and the Malaysian Economy

Agricultural Employment

Issues and challenges

-Improving productivity within the agriculture sector depends on a range of mechanisms and underlying influences including new knowledge or technology, better organization of production and the more efficient utilization of land and labor.

Contribution of agricultural to the gross domestic product (GDP)

Agricultural in Malaysia is characterized by a dualistic system where the plantation sector exists side by side with the smallholder sectors.

Sample of crops:

- Now, it is systematics, using modern technology and hired labor.

Rubber, oil palm, coconut, pineapples and tea are planted.

Chapter 7 : Innovation and Challenges in Malaysia Agriculture

Technological Innovation From Research Institutes

# Government Bodies

                                                 

                                           

MPOB - Malaysian Palm Oil Board    

MARDI - Malaysian Agricultural Reseach & Development Institute

MRB - Malaysian Rubber Board 

MCB - Malaysian Cocoa Board

# Private Sector

- Boustead Holding Berhad, Golden Hope, Federal Land & Development Authority, Kuala Lumpur Kepong Berhad, Sime Darby, Guthrie, IOI, United Plantation Bhd, FELCRA (Federal Land Consolidation and Rehabilitation Authority) and etc.

# Universities

University Putra Malaysia
University Malaysia Sabah
University Kebangsaan Malaysia
University of Malaya
University Malaysia Sabah

RESEARCH IN :

1) Oil Palm

2) Rubber

3) Cocoa

4) Paddy

5) Livestock

6) Fisheries

7) Fruits, Flowers and vegetables

8) Bio agents

9) Precision Agriculture

                                           1) Oil Palm

• from West Africa to the Bogor Botanical Gardens, Indonesia in 1848.
• to improve the yield of oil palm.
• use Hybrid DURA x PESIFERA = TENERA
• research group from Applied Agricultural Resources Sdn. Bhd (KL Kepong Group)
• developing : a) Dummy.Yamgambi.AVROS semi-dwarf oil palm hybrid variety                           b)potential high yield clone from tissue culture

   

• palm oil mill effluent > organic fertilizer
• AJIB - Oil palm fertilizer
• AJIB is crystalline water soluble fertilizer fortified with Enzyme Activators specially formulated to enhance the pollen viability and formation of female flowers (bunches) for oil palm. 

ADVANTAGES OF AJIB

1. increase plant enzyme activities
2. increase farmers' income
3. increase pollen viability
4. increase oil extraction ration (O.E.R)

2) Rubber

• The Malaysian Rubber Board (MRB)
• developed high yield and disease resistant clones producing >3,500kg rubber ha-1 yr1
• new innovation in rubber tapping                                                   a) puncture tapping or microtapping                                             - increased production of latex                                             - produce yields with hormonal stimulation (Ethral)                  compare to conventional excision tapping.                      b) Latex-Timber Clone (LTC)                                                        - different clones (eg: RRIM928, RRIM929)                                        - trunk harvested for timber industry                                                    - vitamin E has also been extracted from the latex.
• current production is sustained at 750,000 million tonnes yr1.

3) Cocoa

• import from Indonesia to fulfill the requirement of the many processing factories.
• 2002 - Addition of biotechnology division of Malaysian Cocoa Board
• aim - to implement research and development in cocoa biotechnology as well as to provide services to the entire cocoa industry
• cocoa biotechnology research : a) agrobiotechnology to improve productivity and production efficiency b) biotechnology enhanced - quality of cocoa products with respect to safety and health c) industrial and pharmaceutical biotechnology to obtain new products such as useful bioactive compound, associated microbes in the cocoa environment, cocoa waste and etc.

4) Paddy

• achieves ONLY 70 % self-sufficient in rice.
• major production centres (rice bowls) MADA (Kedah-Perlis), KADA (Kelantan), and Sawah Sempadan-Tanjung Karang (Selangor).
• Government aims to raise the yield to 10 ton ha-1 with the use of new technology.
• popular varieties :MR220, MR219, MR211, MR81.
• Malaysia will strive to achive 90% self-sufficient leve (SSL) in the near future.
• Vita-grow - paddy fertilizer                                                                               a) a foliar fertilizer developed by UPM that contains complete and balanced plant nutrients that enhances growth of paddy, fruits, vegetable and etc.                                                                         b) specially formulated chemical fertilizer.                                         c) successful in doubling paddy yield and producing better.
• Zappa - UPM product that enhances rapid germination and tillering.    

5) Livestock

• grow at the rate of 3.1% per annum from RM 953million in 1995 to RM 1.1 billion in 2000.
• integration of livestock rearing in oil palm plantations.
• reducing management cost.
• land development agencies - FELDA, RISDA, FELCRA.
• Hybridization : new breed of beef cattle named BRAHMAS, a cross-breed between imported Brahman and local Kedah-Kelantan breed.
• more resistant to diseases.

• Buffaloes are also now selected for meat purposes.
• a sheep named Malin, a cross between Australian and Indonesian breeds was also developed to increase local supply of mutton.
• the Boer goats, a South African breed, are also being raised in large numbers for the same purposes.

Poultry Industry also in advanced where they are able to produce broilers and eggs to meet.

+ fowl pox and the Newcastle disease vaccines designed at UPM and now marketed internationally.

+ researches on deer and ostrich have been undertaken by UPM and MARDI to provide alternative meat resources.

                                                                       6) Fisheries

• Aquaculture is cultivation of natural produce of water such as fish, shellfish, algae and other aquatic organisms.
• It also known as aquafarming, the term is distinguished from fishing by the idea of active human effort.
•  The government is encouraging locals to adopt aquaculture by constructing ponds and raising fishes in net cages in rivers, lakes and sea shores.
• A rapid detection kit has been developed to detect white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) disease in prawns.

                                                     7) Fruits, Flowers and Vegetables

• Research has been conducted to improve commercial production of banana, pineapple, papaya, starfruits, mango, durian, watermelon, jackfruits, rambutan, and ciku.
• Flowers such as orchids is a growing industry.
• Mushroom which are strictly fungi but considered as ‘vegetables’ is a growing industry in Malaysia.

                                                                     8) Bioagents

•  Innovations using biological organisms van be found in the form of biofertillizers such as Rhizobium and biocontrol agents.
• UPM has formulated naturally occurring antagonistic fungi, effective against diseases of vegetables.

                                                            

                                                            9) Precision Agriculture

• This is a new innovation in agriculture. It also known as ‘site specific management’.
• This approach has initially attracted the interest of the plantation sector.
•  It is being practised partly in oil palm and paddy growing areas.

 FUTURE CHALLENGERS IN AGRICULTURE

            There are several challenges now facing the agriculture industry:

1.            Labour

•    There are dependence of foreign labour with some estates employing 100% foreigners particularly those from Indonesia and Philippines.
•        Cost of labour has been rising steadily.
•       Local youths are less interested in agriculture, preferring to work in factories and offices.

          2.             Price

•          Increase in the price of fertilizers, seeds, tools, and equipment has effeted the cost of agriculture production.
•       Market price is also elastic and problematic at the times.

          3.            Crop Choice

•          Big conglomerates are not interested in agriculture other than planting oil palm and rubber.

           4.          Agricultural Technology

•          The benefit from prospecting and developing the potential and applications of new and frontier technology are not yet to be realized.

a)  The use of plant cell and tissue culture techniques as well as genetic engineering to complement conventional plant breeding in developing new crop varieties.

b)    The use of plant cell culture to enhance the development of new and innovative products including metabolites.

c)     The application of embryo manipulation technology

d)  The incorporation of robotics and artificial intelligence as well as computer modelling, including expert systems and computer simulated scenario analysis.

             5.          Resources

•          Resources have to be carefully managed in order that agriculture could be sustained.
•     The main challenges in the future is to enable continuous crop production with high yield per unit areas.
•      Land development will slowly encroach into fragile soils, especially peat and steep lands.
•      This result in soil degradation.
•     Water resources management is also an important issues as only 21% of the country heavy rainfall is being used currently.

CHAPTER 6 : SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTUR

DEFINE : Production of food, fiber, (plant/ animal ) using          

                    farming technique 

                  : Produce healthful food without compromising future                        generation ability to do the same

SUBSTAINABLE FARMING

• Organic farming
• Biodynamics
• Permaculture
• Low- input
• Agro-ecologocal system

THE FARM AS AN ECOSYSTEM

Will conserve oil and water resources and eventually reduce the overall operating cost if it function properly

 FOUR ECOSYSTEM PROCESS

Energy flow

Energy flow - is the non- cyclical path of solar energy (sunlight) going into and through any biological system

Water cycle

Water cycle - is typified by little soil erosion, fast water entry into the soil, and a capacity of the soil to store large amount of water

Mineral cycle

Mineral cycle - involves the movement of nutrient from the soil through the crop and animal and back to the soil thus reducing the need for fertilizer and feed.

Ecosystem dynamic

Ecosystem dynamic - is indicated by high diversity of plants and animal both above and below ground.

SUSTAINABLE PRACTICE

CONSERVE OIL

Ø COVER CROPS, MINIMIZE TILLAGE, CROP ROTATION

RECYCLE NUTRIENT

Ø COMPOST, MANURE, CROP RESIDUES  

PLANNING AND DECISION MAKING

        •Technology driven
•Increased level of investment in physical capital
•Priority to cash crops 
•Priority to irrigated areas

FARM AND DEVELOPMENT                 APPROACH

        •Priority to rained areas

        •People's participation oriented

•Greater investment in human resource and capacity building

•Priority to food security

CHAPTER 5 AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES OF MALAYSIA

In this chapter we learned about 

CHARACTERISTICS OF MALAYSIAN AGRICULTURE 

the agriculture sector in Malaysia can be explained by two:

INDUSTRIAL CROPS.

Highlighted issue for industrial crops were about the ISSUE IN OIL PALM PLANTATION IN MALAYSIA.

    Oil palms are originally from Sierra Leone, West Africa, but were brought to South-East Asia at the beginning of the 20th century.Malaysia was the world's largest producer of palm oil by the middle 20th century and this stayed true until the Indonesian government began investing into the industry in the 1970s.This expansion officially pushed the country into the lead spot for top producer in 2007 and the nation now supplies the majority of the world's growing demand for this cheap edible. Palm oil plantation in Malaysia which the production is dominated by major players such as FELDA，IOI，SIME DARBY，FELCRA，ASIATIC，KULIN, GOLDEN HOPE and other companies.Together, they own up to 60% of the land that is planted with oil palm trees in Malaysia. 60% of the Malaysia palm oil industry is controlled by large companies, 26% by nationalized entities and the remaining of 14% by the owners of smaller plantations. 

The issues in palm oil plantation:

-          1) Deforestation:

•  Oil palm is expanded through the removal of forests.
•  Much of the land planted to oil palm has been logged before clearing for oil palm.
•  Often involves the burning of invaluable timber and remaining forest undergrowth.
•  The oil palm cultivated as a mono crop is responsible for the loss of biodiversity when it replaces native vegetation and it has 25 years of productive life. 

-         2) Sustainability:

• -        Sustainable palm oil is an approach to oil palm agriculture that aims to produce palm oil without causing deforestation.
•       Oil palm with large quantities of fertilizers and pesticides used are not sustainable
• 

-          3) Traceability:

• The larger quantities of chemical used to contribute to the contamination of chemicals in the palm oil.
• -     On the contrary, the low quantities of chemicals used efficiently actually reduced the probability of contamination of the oil. 

     4) Indiscriminate burning:

• Oil palm plantations are the major contributor to forest fires and periodic haze
• As part of the oil palm good agriculture practice (OPGAP), zero burning had been introduced into the plantation and enforced since 1987 under the Environmental Quality Act (EQA) 1974. 
•       Replanting now involves chipping the old oil palm trunk and fronds and the residues are placed in the inter-rows as a biomass mulch to slowly release nutrients for the newly replanted oil palm crop. The OPGAP will pave a way for sustainable production in the field

-          5) Oil palm destroys carbon.

• The oil palm plantation with its use of fertilizers, pesticides, diesel, etc is a net emitter of CO2.
• On the contrary, carbon sequestration through well managed LULUCF practice accumulates more carbon over its 25 years of the life cycle, and at the same time improves the livelihood of thousands of workers by increasing the carbon sinks and improving the sustainable use on natural resources available in the local community. 
• Further, with a use of more efficient boilers in mill processing there is greater energy efficiency and the excess energy is helped in reducing the use of fossil fuels and thereby reduces GHG emissions.

-               6) Oil palm is destructive to the local community:

• Indigenous people are displaced from their land as a result of the expansion of oil palm areas. 
• In Malaysia oil palm is a major contributor to the rural employment and economy through the plantations and small holder schemes. Many children of the initial land scheme settlers are qualified and trained professionals working in other jobs resulting in labor shortages that dictate employment of foreign labor

NEW SOURCE OF GROWTH FOR MALAYSIAN AGRICULTURE

Herbs & Spice, Pharmaceuticals, Natural Products

TONGKAT ALI

Botanical name: Eurycoma long folio 

Eurycoma lungi folia (commonly called Tongkat all or pack bump) is a flowering plant in the family Simaroubaceae, native to Indonesia, Malaysia, and, to a lesser extent, Thailand, Vietnam, and Laos. Many of the common names refer to the plant's medicinal use and extreme bitterness. Penawar hit translates simply as "bitter charm" or "bitter medicine".

Botanical description

A medium size slender shrub reaching 10 m in height, often unbranched with reddish brown petioles. Leaves compound, even-pinnate reaching 1 m in length. Each compound leaf consists of 30-40 leaflets, lanceolate to obovate-lanceolate. Each leaflet is about 5–20 cm long, 1.5–6 cm wide, much paler on the ventral side. Inflorescence axillary, in large brownish red panicle, very pubescent with very fine, soft, glandular trichomes. Flowers are hermaphrodite. Petals small, very fine pubescent. Drupe hard, ovoid yellowish brown when young and brownish red when ripe.

Uses of  Tongkat Ali

Antimalarial, aphrodisiac, anti-diabetic, antimicrobial and antipyretic.

HEMPEDU BUMI

 

Botanical name : Andrographis paniculate 

• Andrographis paniculate is an erect annual herb extremely bitter in taste in all parts of the plant body. In Malaysia, it is known as Hempedu Bumi, which literally means 'bile of earth' since it is one of the most bitter plants that are used in traditional medicine.

Botanical Description

• Andrographis paniculate grows erect to a height of 30–110 cm in moist, shady places. The slender stem is dark green, squared in cross-section with longitudinal furrows and wings along the angles. The lance-shaped leaves have hairless blades measuring up to 8 centimeters long by 2.5 wide. The small flowers are borne in spreading racemes. The fruit is a capsule around 2 centimeters long and a few millimeters wide. It contains many yellow-brown seeds.

• It does best in a sunny location. The seeds are sown during May and June (northern hemisphere). The seedlings are transplanted at a distance of 60 cm x 30 cm
• Treatment of the gastro-intestinal tract and upper respiratory infections, fever, herpes, sore throat, and a variety of other chronic and infectious diseases

KACIP FATIMAH

Botanical name: Lavista Pumila

Botanical description

• Labisia is a herbaceous plant that grows in low clusters, with solitary or rarely branching stems and fine, hairy roots. The leaves are oblong-shaped, hairy on its underside and can grow to 20–40 cm (7.9–15.7 in) in length. The inflorescence is brown and 5–6 cm (2.0–2.4 in) long. The plant is indigenous to Malaysia but also found in Sumatera, Java, and Borneo.Three varieties of Labisia have been described: var. Atlanta, var. Lanceolata dan var Pumila.
• The popular name for the plant is kacip fatimah ("Fatimah's betel cutter"). Other common names of the plant include "Selusoh Fatimah", "pokok pinggang", "rumput palis", "tadah matahari", "mata pelanduk rimba", "bunga belungkas hutan", "remoyan batu" and Sangkoh.
•  

DUKUNG ANAK

Botanical name : Phyllanthus niruri 

• Phyllanthus niruri is a widespread tropical plant commonly found in coastal areas, known by the common names gale of the wind, stonebreaker or seed-under-leaf. It is a relative of the spurges, belonging to the Phyllanthus genus of Family Phyllanthaceae.
• It grows 50 to 70 centimeters tall and bears ascending herbaceous branches. The bark is smooth and light green. It bears numerous pale green flowers which are often flushed with red. The fruits are tiny, smooth capsules containing seeds.
• Used for problems of the stomach, genitourinary system, liver, kidney and spleen. In Malaysia its used to treat diabetes, hypertension, diarrhea, itchiness, jaundice and as antidote for insect bites.
•  
•  

MISAI KUCING

botanical names : Orthosiphon stamineus 

• Orthosiphon stamineus is an herb that is widely grown in tropical areas. It is also known as Orthosiphon aristatus. The plant can be identified by its white or purple colored flowers that resembles cat whiskers. It is also commonly referred as "Misai Kucing" which means cat whiskers. The herb is popularly known as Java tea and is used widely in the form of herbal tea in Asia Java tea was possibly introduced to the West in the early 20th century. The brewing of Java tea is similar to that for other teas. It is soaked in hot boiling water for about three minutes, and honey or milk is then added. It can be easily prepared as garden tea from the dried leaves. There are quite a number of commercial products derived from Misai Kucing. Cultivation areas and post-harvesting method can significantly affect the quality of the herb.
• Used as an analgesic, diuretic, astringent and antiemetic; used to treat conditions like bronchitis, small pox, and diarrhea and as a brain tonic.
•  

PEGAGA

Botanical name: Centella asiatica

• Centella asiatica, commonly known as centella and gotu kola, is a small, herbaceous, frost-tender perennial plant of the family Mackinlayaceae or subfamily Mackinlayoideae of family Apiaceae, and is native to wetlands in Asia. It is used as a medicinal herb in Ayurveda medicine, traditional African medicine, and traditional Chinese medicine. It is also known as the Asiatic pennywort or Indian pennywort in English, among various other names in other languages.
• Habitat
• Centella asiatica is indigenous to the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, and wetland regions of the Southeastern US. Because the plant is aquatic, it is especially sensitive to biological and chemical pollutants in the water, which may be absorbed into the plant
• Uses of Pegaga
• It is used to heal wounds, improve mental clarity, improve mental clarity, and treat skin. It can also boost mental activity and treat high blood pressure, rheumatism, fever, and nervous disorders.

MAS COTEK

• Mas Cotek plants grow wild in eastern peninsular Malaysia and it is popular among traditional medical practitioners. The trees can be found in the jungle in Kelantan, Terengganu, Sabah, Sarawak and Kalimantan. 
• It also can be found grew in the oil palm plantation in Perak, Selangor and Johor. 
• Mas Cotek is slowly receiving international recognition for its medicinal values and health benefits. Based on traditional knowledge the leaves, fruits, stems and roots of Mas Cotek display healing,palliative and preventative properties.
• Used to help womb contraction and as aphrodisiac for men and women, reduce cholesterol and blood sugar level.

AGRICULTURE MARKETING.

Agriculture is no longer the most important sector of the Malaysian economy, contributing 12% of GDP in 2001 (down from 38% in 1960) and occupying about 16% of the employed work force in that year. Nevertheless, agriculture still accounted for 6.3% of export earnings in 1997. Diversification—including development of such newer crops as oil palm, cocoa, and pineapples—is promoted by the government. Much of Sabah and Sarawak is covered with dense jungle and is not conducive to farming. Peninsular Malaysia, however, is predominantly an agricultural region. Cultivation is carried out on the coastal plains, river valleys, and foothills.

Domestic rice furnishes Peninsular Malaysia with about 80% of its requirements; most of the rice supply for Sabah and Sarawak, however, must be imported. Milled rice production for 1999 totaled 1,934,000 tons, of which about 70% came from Peninsular Malaysia. Rubber production totaled 886,000 tons in 1999. The government, through the Rubber Research Institute of Malaysia, has concentrated on improving production, but many estates have switched to production of the more profitable oil palm. Although Malaysia produced 14% of the world's rubber in 1999, and typically accounts for over one-third of the world's rubber exports, rubber is no longer the country's primary source of export income. Competition from Thailand and Indonesia has recently diminished the Malaysian market share for rubber.

Production of palm oil and palm kernel oil totaled 10,553,000 and 3,026,000 tons respectively in 1999, more than any other country in the world. More than 90% of all rubber and palm oil is produced in Peninsular Malaysia. Black and white peppers are grown on Sarawak; pepper exports amounted to $49.3 million in 2001. Output of lesser agricultural products in 1999 included copra, 13,000 tons; coconuts, 711,000 tons; cocoa, 100,000 tons; and pineapple, 143,000 tons.